{"id":19832,"date":"2019-02-07T14:11:17","date_gmt":"2019-02-07T10:41:17","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/?p=19832"},"modified":"2024-08-19T16:21:02","modified_gmt":"2024-08-19T11:51:02","slug":"the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/","title":{"rendered":"The future of automotive lithium-ion battery recycling: Charting a sustainable course"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"section-title\" dir=\"ltr\" style=\"text-align: left;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">This paper looks ahead, beyond the projected large-scale market penetration of vehicles containing advanced batteries, to the time when the spent batteries will be ready for final disposition<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"section-title\" dir=\"ltr\" style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Abstract\"><\/span>Abstract<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_38 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\">\u0641\u0647\u0631\u0633\u062a \u0639\u0646\u0627\u0648\u06cc\u0646<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" style=\"display: none;\"><label for=\"item\" aria-label=\"Table of Content\"><span style=\"display: flex;align-items: center;width: 35px;height: 30px;justify-content: center;\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/label><input type=\"checkbox\" id=\"item\"><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1' style='display:block'><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#Abstract\" title=\"Abstract\">Abstract<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B1%D9%AB_Introduction\" title=\"\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Introduction\">\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Introduction<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3'><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B1%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Lead-acid_battery_example\" title=\"\u06f1\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery example\">\u06f1\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery example<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B1%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Comparison_of_automotive_battery_types\" title=\"\u06f1\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Comparison of automotive battery types\">\u06f1\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Comparison of automotive battery types<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Lead-acid_battery_recycling\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery recycling\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery recycling<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Nickel-metal-hydride_battery_recycling\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Nickel\u2013metal-hydride battery recycling\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Nickel\u2013metal-hydride battery recycling<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB_Lithium-ion_battery_recycling\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Lithium-ion battery recycling\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Lithium-ion battery recycling<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4'><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Pyrometallurgical_recycling_Smelting\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Pyrometallurgical recycling (Smelting)\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Pyrometallurgical recycling (Smelting)<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Intermediate_recycling_process\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Intermediate recycling process\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Intermediate recycling process<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB_Direct_recycling\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Direct recycling\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Direct recycling<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B4%D9%AB_Discussion\" title=\"\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Discussion\">\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Discussion<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B3%D9%AB_A_problem_in_the_model_recycling_system\" title=\"\u06f3\u066b\u00a0A problem in the model recycling system\">\u06f3\u066b\u00a0A problem in the model recycling system<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#%DB%B4%D9%AB_Vision_of_ideal_future_system\" title=\"\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Vision of ideal future system\">\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Vision of ideal future system<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#Acknowledgments\" title=\"Acknowledgments\">Acknowledgments<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/the-future-of-automotive-lithium-ion-battery-recycling-charting-a-sustainable-course\/#References\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<div id=\"as0005\" dir=\"ltr\">\n<p id=\"sp0005\" style=\"text-align: left;\">. It describes a working system for recycling, using lead\u2013acid battery recycling as a model. Recycling of <a title=\"Learn more about Automotives\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/automotives\">automotive<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lithium-ion-li-ion-battery\">lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries<\/a>\u00a0is more complicated and not yet established because few end-of-life batteries will need recycling for another decade. There is thus the opportunity now to obviate some of the technical, economic, and institutional roadblocks that might arise. The paper considers what actions can be started now to avoid the impediments to recycling and ensure that economical and sustainable options are available at the end of the batteries&#8217; useful life.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-19827 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/used-lead-acid-battery.jpg\" alt=\"\u0628\u0627\u0632\u06cc\u0627\u0641\u062a \u0628\u0627\u062a\u0631\u06cc \u0647\u0627\u06cc \u062e\u0648\u062f\u0631\u0648\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/used-lead-acid-battery.jpg 640w, https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/used-lead-acid-battery-480x360.jpg 480w, https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/used-lead-acid-battery-600x450.jpg 600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"body\" class=\"Body\" style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<div>\n<section id=\"s0005\">\n<h2 id=\"st0010\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B1%D9%AB_Introduction\"><\/span>\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Introduction<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"p0005\">Recycling, per se, is not inherently good or bad\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0005\" name=\"bbb0005\">[\u06f1]<\/a>. For some materials such as glass\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0010\" name=\"bbb0010\">[\u06f2]<\/a>, the benefits are dubious and depend on factors like the shipping distance. There has been some debate about the benefits from recycling primary alkaline batteries over simple disposal\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0015\" name=\"bbb0015\">[\u06f3]<\/a>\u00a0because the materials are abundant and non-toxic, now that the batteries no longer contain mercury. For\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Automotives\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/automotives\">automotive<\/a>\u00a0batteries, however, the environmental benefits are clear, although they vary with battery type and recycling method. There are potential economic benefits as well. If usable materials can be recovered from used batteries, less raw material needs to be extracted from the limited supplies in the ground. If the raw materials come from abroad, recycling domestically reduces the quantities that need to be imported, improving the balance of payments. In addition, significant negative\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Environmental Impact\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/environmental-impact\">environmental impacts<\/a>\u00a0can occur from mining and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Ore Treatment\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/ore-treatment\">processing ores<\/a>\u00a0(e.g., SO<sub>x<\/sub>\u00a0emissions from\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Smelting\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/smelting\">smelting<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Sulfide Ore\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/sulfide-ore\">sulfide ores<\/a>, such as those that yield copper, nickel, and cobalt), and these are avoided if the materials can be recycled\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0020\" name=\"bbb0020\">[\u06f4]<\/a>. Recycling has its own environmental effects, but these are generally smaller than those from primary production. There are, of course, exceptions, such as recovering lithium from\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Pyrometallurgical Process\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/pyrometallurgical-process\">pyrometallurgical process<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Slag\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/slag\">slag<\/a>. Recycling of materials avoids\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Processing Cost\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/processing-cost\">processing costs<\/a>\u00a0for\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Waste Treatment\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/waste-treatment\">waste treatment<\/a>. In addition, some spent batteries are classified as hazardous wastes, increasing transportation, treatment, and disposal costs, as well as the effort needed to achieve regulatory compliance.\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lithium-Ion Batteries\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lithium-ion-batteries\">Lithium-ion batteries<\/a>\u00a0are classified as Class 9 miscellaneous hazardous materials, and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid-battery\">lead\u2013acid batteries<\/a>\u00a0are listed as Class 8 corrosive hazardous materials under United\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about State Regulation\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/state-regulation\">States regulations<\/a>\u00a0(\u06f4\u06f0 CFR 173.21(c))\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0025\" name=\"bbb0025\">[\u06f5]<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0010\">Lithium-ion batteries are starting to be used in significant quantities for automotive\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Propulsion\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/propulsion\">propulsion<\/a>. Because these batteries are expected to last the life of the vehicle, they will not be ending their useful lives in large numbers for about 10\u00a0years. They may subsequently be used for utility\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Energy Storage\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/energy-storage\">energy storage<\/a>, but eventually their useful lives will end. The question is, what steps can be taken to ensure that these spent Li-ion batteries are recycled. In an ideal system, these batteries would be sent for responsible recycling and not be exported to\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Developing Countries\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/developing-countries\">developing countries<\/a>\u00a0with less stringent\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about environmental health and safety\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/environmental-health-and-safety\">environmental, health, and safety<\/a>\u00a0regulations. Methods are needed for the safe and economical transport and processing of the spent batteries, as well as environmentally sound recycling. In addition, the recycled product needs to be of high enough quality to find a market for its original purpose, or it must find an alternative market. Fortunately, a\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Recycling\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-recycling\">battery recycling<\/a>\u00a0system is in place that already works well, and many lessons can be learned from it.<\/p>\n<section id=\"s0015\">\n<h3 id=\"st0030\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B1%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Lead-acid_battery_example\"><\/span>\u06f1\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery example<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0020\"><a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid\">Lead\u2013acid<\/a>\u00a0batteries are recycled more than any other major consumer product (see\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0005\" name=\"bf0005\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f1<\/a>). Even with advertising programs, education, and convenient curb-side pickup, recycling of common consumer products in the United States has not been a resounding success. However, lead\u2013acid batteries (and to a\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lesser Extent\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lesser-extent\">lesser extent<\/a>\u00a0discarded tires) have achieved exemplary recycling rates.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"f0005\" class=\"figure\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr1.jpg\" alt=\"\" height=\"281\" aria-describedby=\"ca0015\" \/><\/p>\n<ol class=\"links-for-figure\">\n<li><a class=\"anchor download-link\" title=\"Download full-size image\" ref=\"magnificPopup\" href=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr1.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" download=\"\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">Download full-size image<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0025\"><span class=\"label\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f1<\/span>.\u00a0Batteries are the most recycled consumer product.<\/p>\n<p>(Courtesy of Battery Council International)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"p0025\">In the United States, about 99% of lead\u2013acid batteries are recycled\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0030\" name=\"bbb0030\">[\u06f6]<\/a>. Lead\u2013acid (Pb\u2013acid) battery recycling is also working well in Europe and Japan. In disadvantaged areas, backyard operations have exploited children to disassemble batteries and electronics for treatment in smelters without\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Emission Control\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/emission-control\">emission controls<\/a>, and dumped lead-contaminated acid into the water supply, but such practices are now being eliminated\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0035\" name=\"bbb0035\">[\u06f7]<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0030\">To date, the model shown in\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0010\" name=\"bf0010\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f2<\/a>\u00a0has worked admirably for lead\u2013acid battery recycling. We consider whether some variation of this model would work well for other battery types.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"f0010\" class=\"figure\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr2.jpg\" alt=\"\" height=\"691\" aria-describedby=\"ca0020\" \/><\/p>\n<ol class=\"links-for-figure\">\n<li><a class=\"anchor download-link\" title=\"Download full-size image\" ref=\"magnificPopup\" href=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr2.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" download=\"\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">Download full-size image<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0030\"><span class=\"label\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f2<\/span>.\u00a0Simple processes are used to recycle\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid-battery\">lead\u2013acid batteries<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>(Courtesy of Battery Council International)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0020\">\n<h3 id=\"st0035\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B1%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Comparison_of_automotive_battery_types\"><\/span>\u06f1\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Comparison of automotive battery types<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p id=\"p0040\">Before considering that topic, it is useful to first compare the physical and chemical structures of different types of automotive batteries: namely, the lead\u2013acid batteries used for starting-lighting-ignition (SLI) and commonly found under the hood of most cars, nickel\u2013metal-hydride (Ni\u2013MH) batteries used in\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Hybrid Vehicle\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/hybrid-vehicle\">hybrid vehicles<\/a>, and Li-ion batteries used in\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Plug-in Vehicle\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/plug-in-vehicle\">plug-in vehicles<\/a>\u00a0and some hybrids. The latter two battery types are used primarily for propulsion and heating, ventilation, and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about air conditioning\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/air-conditioning\">air conditioning<\/a>\u00a0(HVAC), although some designs are also available for use in conventional SLI applications. These will be discussed later.<\/p>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0045\">The three battery types are all conceptually and structurally similar but chemically quite different. Each consists of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Electrodes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/electrodes\">electrode<\/a>\u00a0(cathode and anode) active materials on grids or foils that serve as the current collectors, with an\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Electrolytes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/electrolytes\">electrolyte<\/a>\u00a0that carries charge between the electrodes. These components are housed in an enclosure. As shown in\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#t0005\" name=\"bt0005\">Table\u00a0\u06f1<\/a>, the compositions of these components differ greatly among the battery types.<\/p>\n<div id=\"t0005\" class=\"tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0\">\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0010\"><span class=\"label\">Table\u00a0\u06f1<\/span>.\u00a0Comparison of cell materials.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"groups\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"valign-top rowsep-1\">\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Cell component\/battery type<\/th>\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Pb\u2013acid<\/th>\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Ni\u2013MH<\/th>\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Li-ion<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Cathode<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">PbO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Ni(OH)<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">LiMO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Cathode plate\/foil<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Pb<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Ni foam<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Al<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Anode<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Pb<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">MH (AB<sub>5<\/sub>)<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Graphite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Anode plate\/foil<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Pb<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Ni-plated steel<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Cu<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Electrolyte<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">KOH<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Organic solvent\u00a0+\u00a0LiPF<sub>6<\/sub><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Separator<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">PE or PVC w\/silica<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Polyolefin<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">PE\/PP<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">Cell case<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">PP<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Stainless steel<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-left\">Varies (metal or laminate)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"sp0015\">PE\u00a0=\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about poly-ethylene\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/poly-ethylene\">polyethylene<\/a>; PVC\u00a0=\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Polyvinyl Chloride\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/polyvinyl-chloride\">polyvinyl chloride<\/a>; PP\u00a0=\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about poly-propylene\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/poly-propylene\">polypropylene<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"p0050\">It is apparent that the number of distinct materials within a battery type increases across the table. The more diverse the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Materials\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-materials\">battery materials<\/a>, the more complex the recycling. For Pb\u2013acid batteries, all of the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Internal Component\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/internal-component\">internal components<\/a>\u00a0contain lead, which makes up about 60% of the battery mass. Except for electrical connectors, which can be removed when the cells are opened, no other metal is present; as a result, no separation processes are required. Because nickel dominates the Ni\u2013MH battery, it can be the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Foci\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/foci\">focus<\/a>\u00a0of recycling. In addition, the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Nickel Alloys\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/nickel-alloys\">nickel and steel alloy<\/a>\u00a0that results from current\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Recycling Process\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/recycling-process\">recycling processes<\/a>\u00a0is a valuable input to stainless-steel manufacturing, making recycling of these batteries economical today. The many different materials in a typical Li-ion battery complicate recycling.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0025\">\n<h3 id=\"st0040\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Lead-acid_battery_recycling\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Lead\u2013acid battery recycling<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p id=\"p0060\">Disposal of Pb\u2013acid batteries is illegal in most states, and many states require a monetary deposit as an incentive for consumers to return their batteries. Most Pb\u2013acid batteries are collected when new ones are purchased (the dealers are required to accept them and are paid for their trouble). In some cases, spent batteries can be returned to the manufacturer via back-haul (in the United States, not Europe), minimizing transportation costs. Additionally, as required by law, batteries are stripped from vehicles that have gone out of service and are about to be shredded. Regulations concerning transportation and processing of batteries are in place and widely known.<\/p>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0065\">As shown in\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0010\" name=\"bf0010\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f2<\/a>, the lead\u2013acid\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Component\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-component\">battery components<\/a>\u00a0are recycled by a simple process. First, the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Case\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-case\">battery case<\/a>\u00a0is broken open, and the sulfuric acid electrolyte is drained out and collected. The plates and connectors can be removed from the case at this point and recovered whole. (<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0015\" name=\"bf0015\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f3<\/a>\u00a0shows recovered plates and cases.) Alternatively, the drained battery can be sent to a hammer-mill for\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Size Reduction\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/size-reduction\">size reduction<\/a>, and the plastic and lead can be separated by a simple sink-float device. The recovered lead (a low-melting metal) is remelted and purified to make new battery components. Lead and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Sulfur Emission\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/sulfur-emission\">sulfur emissions<\/a>\u00a0from secondary smelting are tightly regulated by the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Environmental Protection Agency\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/environmental-protection-agency\">Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0040\" name=\"bbb0040\">[\u06f8]<\/a>. The plastic is melted and molded into new cases. The acid can be neutralized or processed to sulfate salts for various uses, such as the manufacture of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Soaps (Detergent)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/soaps-detergent\">soap<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"f0015\" class=\"figure\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr3.jpg\" alt=\"\" height=\"305\" aria-describedby=\"ca0025\" \/><\/p>\n<ol class=\"links-for-figure\">\n<li><a class=\"anchor download-link\" title=\"Download full-size image\" ref=\"magnificPopup\" href=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr3.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" download=\"\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">Download full-size image<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0035\"><span class=\"label\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f3<\/span>.\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid-battery\">Lead\u2013acid battery<\/a>\u00a0cases and plates after separation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"p0070\">The recycling operation is profitable because recycled lead (taken back to its elemental form and purified) is known to be of high quality, so there is little incentive to export to places with less-stringent regulations, although some batteries do find their way to Mexico\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0045\" name=\"bbb0045\">[\u06f9]<\/a>. Some battery manufacturers prefer new over recycled lead.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0075\">A key reason for the success of lead\u2013acid battery recycling is that essentially all of the manufacturers use the same raw materials: lead, lead oxide, and sulfuric acid in a\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about poly-propylene\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/poly-propylene\">polypropylene<\/a>\u00a0case. Because the battery design is similar for the manufacturers,\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Automated Technology\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/automated-technology\">automated technology<\/a>\u00a0can be used for battery disassembly. In summary, lead\u2013acid recycling works well because it is profitable, it is illegal to dispose the batteries without recycling, the battery disassembly is simple because of the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Design Standard\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/design-standard\">standard design<\/a>\u00a0used, the battery chemistry does not require segregation, and the recycling process is simple.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0030\">\n<h3 id=\"st0045\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Nickel-metal-hydride_battery_recycling\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Nickel\u2013metal-hydride battery recycling<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0085\">Large-format Ni\u2013MH batteries have been used in hybrid vehicles for long enough that some now require disposition by either reuse or recycling. A recycling system is already in place because consumer batteries from smaller devices such as power tools, which have much shorter useful lives, have been recycled commercially for many years (see\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0020\" name=\"bf0020\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f4<\/a>). However, not all of the battery materials are being recovered as high-value products. The nickel and iron are recovered by rotary hearth and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about electric arc furnace\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/electric-arc-furnace\">electric-arc furnaces<\/a>\u00a0as\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Ferronickel\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/ferronickel\">ferronickel<\/a>\u00a0to feed stainless-steel production. Because this is a high-value product with a huge market, there is no need to separate the nickel from the iron. However, using this technique loses the rare earths in the metal hydride to the slag, which is used as roadbed aggregate in place of gravel\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0050\" name=\"bbb0050\">[\u06f1\u06f0]<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"f0020\" class=\"figure\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr4.jpg\" alt=\"\" height=\"403\" aria-describedby=\"ca0030\" \/><\/p>\n<ol class=\"links-for-figure\">\n<li><a class=\"anchor download-link\" title=\"Download full-size image\" ref=\"magnificPopup\" href=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr4.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" download=\"\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">Download full-size image<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0040\"><span class=\"label\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f4<\/span>.\u00a0Hand-sorting of Ni\u2013MH consumer batteries.<\/p>\n<p>(Courtesy of Kinsbursky Brothers, Inc.)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"p0090\">Recently, the increasing demand for rare earths in batteries, motors, and other components of vehicles and\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Wind Turbines\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/wind-turbines\">wind turbines<\/a>, coupled with China&#8217;s policies to restrict exports so that they can satisfy their own demands, has provided a significant\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Economic Incentive\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/economic-incentive\">economic incentive<\/a>\u00a0to recover these metals during recycling.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0095\">Nickel\u2013metal-hydride batteries all have very similar chemistry (AB<sub>5<\/sub>), although the exact mix of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Rare Earth Elements\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/rare-earth-elements\">rare earth elements<\/a>\u00a0in the hydride may vary slightly, and pack configurations differ. For that reason, differentiation among Ni\u2013MH batteries is not needed. Several companies have announced programs to recover the rare earths from Ni\u2013MH batteries. Umicore, in Belgium, recovers nickel and has an agreement with Solvay (formerly Rhodia) to process slag and recover the rare earths\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0055\" name=\"bbb0055\">[\u06f1\u06f1]<\/a>. Retriev Technologies (formerly Toxco) has a plant under\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Construction\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/construction\">construction<\/a>\u00a0in Ohio, partially funded by American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds received in 2009, and plans to recover rare earths when its first processing line is completed. Honda has an agreement with Japan Metals and Chemicals\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0060\" name=\"bbb0060\">[\u06f1\u06f2]<\/a>\u00a0to recycle its Ni\u2013MH batteries. In Australia, Toyota offers a $100 rebate when a Prius battery pack is returned, and a discount on a replacement\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0065\" name=\"bbb0065\">[\u06f1\u06f3]<\/a>. In sum, Ni\u2013MH batteries seem to be on track for successful recycling.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0035\">\n<h3 id=\"st0050\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB_Lithium-ion_battery_recycling\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Lithium-ion battery recycling<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0105\">Several factors contribute to making Li-ion battery recycling more complicated than Pb\u2013acid or Ni\u2013MH recycling. First, as shown in\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#t0005\" name=\"bt0005\">Table\u00a0\u06f1<\/a>, Li-ion batteries have a wider variety of materials in each cell. The active materials are in the form of powder, coated onto\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Metal Foil\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/metal-foil\">metal foil<\/a>, and these different materials must be separated from each other during recycling. Lead\u2013acid batteries have a relatively small number of large lead plates packed together in a single\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Plastic Case\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/plastic-case\">plastic case<\/a>, while a Li-ion pack is likely to have 100 or more individual cells (~\u00a0\u06f5\u06f0\u06f0\u06f0 for a Tesla electric vehicle), which are connected into modules and, in turn, are assembled into a pack with control\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Circuitry\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/circuitry\">circuitry<\/a>\u00a0attached to each cell (see\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#f0025\" name=\"bf0025\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f5<\/a>). A thermal management system may also be included. These components could possibly be recovered intact or may contain valuable materials that would provide some economic incentive for recycling the battery pack.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"f0025\" class=\"figure\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr5.jpg\" alt=\"\" height=\"241\" aria-describedby=\"ca0035\" \/><\/p>\n<ol class=\"links-for-figure\">\n<li><a class=\"anchor download-link\" title=\"Download full-size image\" ref=\"magnificPopup\" href=\"https:\/\/ars.els-cdn.com\/content\/image\/1-s2.0-S2214993714000037-gr5.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" download=\"\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">Download full-size image<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0045\"><span class=\"label\">Fig.\u00a0\u06f5<\/span>.\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid-battery\">Lead\u2013acid battery<\/a>\u00a0and Li-ion pack.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"p0110\">Within the cells, the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Chemical Composition\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/chemical-composition\">chemical compositions<\/a>\u00a0of the active materials \u2013 especially the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Cathodes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/cathodes\">cathode<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 vary with manufacturer and battery function, are changing, and may never standardize. The most common cathode material for the batteries now prevalent in\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Consumer Electronics\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/consumer-electronics\">consumer electronics<\/a>\u00a0is LiCoO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0(LCO), but various combinations of Ni, Mn, and Al can be used to replace some or all of the cobalt to optimize performance while lowering raw material cost, which is the key for automotive batteries. Another promising cathode material that uses very low cost inputs is LiFePO<sub>4<\/sub>\u00a0(LFP). Most manufacturers use some form of graphite for the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Anode\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/anode\">anode<\/a>, but silicon is also being used, and other materials and mixtures are being studied.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0115\">Lead\u2013acid batteries are small and easily removed from their location under the hood, while the larger, more complex Li-ion packs vary in shape and location in the vehicle. As a result, removal may be more difficult. However, if removal takes a professional, fewer people need to be trained on proper handling and separation. If Li-ion batteries last the entire\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Life Vehicle\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/life-vehicle\">vehicle life<\/a>, they will all end up in scrap yards or at auto dealers. These are both sufficiently large enterprises to facilitate collection. Vehicle batteries subsequently used for stationary energy storage could be collected from utilities after this second use; collection from homes or smaller commercial installations would be more difficult.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0120\">At present, there are no regulations regarding recycling of large-format Li-ion batteries. This condition might be thought to be good for recyclers, who would face no restrictions in\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Process Design\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/process-design\">process design<\/a>. However, they would face the significant possibility that restrictive regulations could be imposed after the fact. Therefore, processes must be designed to be compliant with anticipated regulations. In addition, battery technology is still evolving. Recycling processes designed for a specific design or chemistry could become irrelevant quickly.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0125\">Automotive Li-ion batteries have only been in commercial use for about 5\u00a0years, and it will take some time until they are used in large volumes. And with their long\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Product Life\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/product-life\">product life<\/a>\u00a0(ideally, the life of the car), not nearly enough batteries have reached the end of their lives to support large-scale recycling plants. However,\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lithium Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lithium-battery\">lithium batteries<\/a>\u00a0from consumer electronics, as well as processing scrap, are available and could supply\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Feedstocks\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/feedstocks\">feedstock<\/a>\u00a0for the fledgling recycling industry for automotive Li-ion batteries. Several recycling methods have been proposed, each with its advantages and disadvantages, as discussed below (process descriptions from Ref.\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0070\" name=\"bbb0070\">[\u06f1\u06f4]<\/a>).<\/p>\n<section id=\"s0040\">\n<h4 id=\"st0055\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B1%D9%AB_Pyrometallurgical_recycling_Smelting\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f1\u066b\u00a0Pyrometallurgical recycling (Smelting)<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<div>\n<p id=\"p0135\">Lithium-ion batteries, after having been dismantled to the module level, are fed to a high-temperature\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Shaft Furnace\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/shaft-furnace\">shaft furnace<\/a>\u00a0along with a slag-forming agent that typically includes\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Limestone\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/limestone\">limestone<\/a>, sand, and slag. The electrolyte and plastics burn to supply some of the energy for the smelting, and the valuable metals are reduced to an alloy of copper, cobalt, nickel, and iron. These metals are recovered from the alloy by\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Leaching\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/leaching\">leaching<\/a>. The slag contains lithium, aluminum, silicon, calcium, iron, and any\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Manganese\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/manganese\">manganese<\/a>\u00a0that was present in the cathode material. Recycling of aluminum or lithium from the slag is neither economical nor energy efficient. Gas cleanup steps are necessary to avoid release of potentially toxic\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about By-Product\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/by-product\">by-products<\/a>. This process is operating commercially now, and it is economical for batteries with cathode materials containing cobalt and nickel, but not for newer designs with manganese spinel or LFP cathodes (see\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#t0010\" name=\"bt0010\">Table\u00a0\u06f2<\/a>\u00a0for approximate cathode and elemental constituent values).<\/p>\n<div id=\"t0010\" class=\"tables frame-topbot colsep-0 rowsep-0\">\n<div class=\"captions\">\n<p id=\"sp0020\"><span class=\"label\">Table\u00a0\u06f2<\/span>.\u00a0Recovery of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Cathodes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/cathodes\">cathode<\/a>\u00a0material maximizes product value.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"groups\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"valign-top rowsep-1\">\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Cathode<\/th>\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Price of constituents ($\/lb)<\/th>\n<th class=\"align-left\" scope=\"col\">Price of cathode ($\/lb)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">LiCoO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f8\u066b\u06f3\u06f0<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f1\u06f2\u2013\u06f1\u06f6<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">LiNi<sub>1\/3<\/sub>Co<sub>1\/3<\/sub>Mn<sub>1\/3<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f4\u066b\u06f9\u06f0<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f1\u06f0\u2013\u06f1\u06f3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">LiMnO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f1\u066b\u06f7\u06f0<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f4\u066b\u06f5\u06f0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"valign-top\">\n<td class=\"align-left\">LiFePO<sub>4<\/sub><\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f0\u066b\u06f7\u06f0<\/td>\n<td class=\"align-char\">\u06f9<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0045\">\n<h4 id=\"st0060\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B2%D9%AB_Intermediate_recycling_process\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f2\u066b\u00a0Intermediate recycling process<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p id=\"p0145\">In this process, commercially used in Canada, batteries undergo size reduction in a hammer-mill and a shaker table separates mixed plastics and metals. Filtering of the aqueous stream leaving the hammer-mill yields mixed\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Metal Oxide\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/metal-oxide\">metal oxides<\/a>\u00a0and carbon, and a\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Liquid Stream\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/liquid-stream\">liquid stream<\/a>, which is then dewatered to some extent. The liquid stream can be mixed with soda ash to\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Precipitates\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/precipitates\">precipitate<\/a>\u00a0Li<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>3<\/sub>, which is subsequently filtered from the solution and sold. The metals (including the Al) can be separated and sent for recycling. However, as with pyrometallurgical recycling, the process is only economical if cobalt and\/or nickel are contained in the cathodes of the feed batteries.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0050\">\n<h4 id=\"st0065\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB_Direct_recycling\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u00a0Direct recycling<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p id=\"p0155\">This bench-scale\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Physical Process\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/physical-process\">physical process<\/a>, which has been demonstrated for several cathode types, recovers battery materials for reinsertion into the battery supply chain with little or no additional processing. Breached discharged cells are placed in a container to which CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0is added, and the temperature and pressure are raised to bring CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0above its\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Critical Point\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/critical-point\">critical point<\/a>. The\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Supercritical Carbon Dioxide\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/supercritical-carbon-dioxide\">supercritical carbon dioxide<\/a>\u00a0extracts the electrolyte (ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, and LiPF<sub>6<\/sub>) from the cells, and is removed. The electrolyte separates from the gaseous CO<sub>2<\/sub>, and after further processing, can be recycled for use in batteries if it is determined to be economic. The cells, devoid of electrolyte, undergo pulverization or other size-reduction steps, possibly in the absence of water or oxygen to avoid contamination of materials. Subsequently, the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Cell Component\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/cell-component\">cell components<\/a>\u00a0are separated through techniques that exploit differences in\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Electronic Conductivity\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/electronic-conductivity\">electronic conductivity<\/a>, density, or other properties. Cathode materials may need to undergo re-lithiation prior to reuse in batteries.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0160\">This process has the advantage that almost all battery components, including aluminum but excluding\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Separators\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/separators\">separators<\/a>, are recovered and can be reused after further processing. Most important, cathode materials constitute a potentially valuable product from direct recycling, regardless of cathode type. There is some question, however, about whether the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Recovered Material\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/recovered-material\">recovered material<\/a>\u00a0will perform as well as virgin material, which could have implications for\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Power\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-power\">battery power<\/a>\u00a0and lifetime, so manufacturers may be reluctant to purchase recycled compounds. Manufacturers of products with tight\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Quality Standard\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/quality-standard\">quality standards<\/a>\u00a0have historically been reluctant to purchase\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Recycled Material\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/recycled-material\">recycled materials<\/a>because of performance concerns\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0075\" name=\"bbb0075\">[\u06f1\u06f5]<\/a>. Recovered materials could possibly be used in applications with less-stringent requirements.\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Product Quality\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/product-quality\">Product quality<\/a>\u00a0will depend on having a known, uniform input stream; mixing cathode materials is likely to reduce the recycled product value.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0010\">\n<h4 id=\"st0300\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B2%D9%AB%DB%B3%D9%AB%DB%B4%D9%AB_Discussion\"><\/span>\u06f2\u066b\u06f3\u066b\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Discussion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p id=\"p0165\">Several factors could help promote Li-ion battery recycling. For example, the large, recognizable packs will be removed from\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about end of life vehicle\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/end-of-life-vehicle\">end-of-life vehicles<\/a>\u00a0if there is an economic incentive or a regulatory imperative to do so. They will be labeled to enable identification for proper routing. The recovered batteries could be returned to the original manufacturers (in Europe this may be a requirement\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0080\" name=\"bbb0080\">[\u06f1\u06f6]<\/a>), which could enable subsequent recycling. However, while these manufacturers would know what the batteries are composed of, they might not want to be in the recycling business, and they would be required to process recycled compounds that could be obsolete 10\u00a0years or more after initial production.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0170\">Several developments would facilitate making Li-ion battery recycling economically viable:<\/p>\n<dl class=\"list\">\n<dt class=\"list-label\">\u2022<\/dt>\n<dd class=\"list-description\">\n<p id=\"p0230\">Separation technology for recovered cells that enables processing different chemistries, recycling processes for each cell chemistry, or technology that produces valuable products from a mixed stream;<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"list-label\">\u2022<\/dt>\n<dd class=\"list-description\">\n<p id=\"p0235\">Methods for separation of cathode materials after initial processing;<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"list-label\">\u2022<\/dt>\n<dd class=\"list-description\">\n<p id=\"p0240\">Greater recycling process flexibility or standardization of battery materials and designs; and<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"list-label\">\u2022<\/dt>\n<dd class=\"list-description\">\n<p id=\"p0245\">Assurance that regulations will not impede recycling.<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0175\">Initial battery manufacturers can promote eventual recycling using\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Design for Recycling\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/design-for-recycling\">design for recycling<\/a>, including the following steps: inclusion of labels or other distinguishing features, use of a minimum number of different materials, standardization of formats and materials, avoidance of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Toxic Material\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/materials-science\/toxic-material\">toxic materials<\/a>\u00a0(cadmium, arsenic, mercury, halogens, etc.), and designs that allow easy separation of parts. Examples of the last item include a separable\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Cooling Systems\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/cooling-systems\">cooling system<\/a>, reversible joining (nuts and bolts instead of welds), and avoidance of potting or\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Adhesive\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/adhesive\">adhesive<\/a>\u00a0compounds to hold cells in place. Of course, these\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Design Change\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/design-change\">design changes<\/a>\u00a0cannot be made at the cost of any reduction in performance or safety during the battery&#8217;s useful life. A committee of the United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) is working on design-for-recycling guidelines for United States auto manufacturers\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0085\" name=\"bbb0085\">[\u06f1\u06f7]<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0180\">Battery manufacturers and recyclers are working to address the roadblocks to Li-ion battery recycling within the 10\u00a0years or so before large numbers of large-format automotive batteries are ready for final disposition.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0055\">\n<h2 id=\"st0070\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B3%D9%AB_A_problem_in_the_model_recycling_system\"><\/span>\u06f3\u066b\u00a0A problem in the model recycling system<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"p0190\">Recent events have caused difficulties with the ideal system on which future Li-ion recycling could be modeled. The recycling of Li-ion batteries along with\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Lead Acid Battery\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/lead-acid-battery\">lead\u2013acid batteries<\/a>\u00a0is causing trouble at secondary lead smelters. Many current Li-ion batteries are indistinguishable from lead\u2013acid batteries on purpose, so their use is transparent for SLIs, motorcycles, and other applications. However, inclusion of Li-ion batteries in the input stream of secondary lead smelters has resulted in fires and explosions\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0090\" name=\"bbb0090\">[\u06f1\u06f8]<\/a>. It is unclear what chemical reactions are occurring;\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Vaporization\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/vaporization\">vaporization<\/a>\u00a0of the volatile organic\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Electrolytes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/electrolytes\">electrolytes<\/a>\u00a0might be causing the Li-ion cells to explode. Obviously, such events pose a serious danger and must be prevented. These batteries may end up in the wrong recycling stream through honest mistakes. However, because Pb\u2013acid battery recyclers pay for their desired\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Input Material\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/input-material\">input material<\/a>\u00a0(and may charge to take other battery types), some entities may hide different battery types in pallets of Pb\u2013acid batteries to avoid having to pay for their disposition. Recyclers could impose a penalty for sending contaminated loads. However, such contamination is difficult to detect. The used batteries are often delivered to recyclers in huge loads (over 3000\/h\u2013up to 70,000\/day), and it is nearly impossible for plant staff to do a careful visual screening of the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Piles\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/piles\">piles<\/a>\u00a0on the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Conveyor Belt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/conveyor-belt\">conveyor belts<\/a>. Drivers pre-screen the bins or pallets as well, but additional safeguards may be needed. The lead\u2013acid battery recyclers want the Li-ion batteries removed before they get to their plants. The difficulty would be reduced if there were a profitable outlet for the recycling of Li-ion batteries. At present, however, Li-ion manufacturers are moving toward less-expensive materials, which exacerbates the problem.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0195\">Similarly, for successful Li-ion recycling, it is important to prevent Pb\u2013acid batteries from entering that input stream. The acid could react with\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Electrodes\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/electrodes\">electrode<\/a>\u00a0substrates, and the presence of lead could force the recycler to deal with additional regulations for hazardous material. Clearly, any model system for\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Recycling\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-recycling\">battery recycling<\/a>\u00a0will need to avoid cross-contamination. This issue is being addressed in the United States by the Society of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Automotives\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/automotives\">Automotive<\/a>\u00a0Engineers and in Europe by EUROBAT. Both groups have active working groups attempting to better define and find solutions to the problems of cross-contamination of battery types in recycling streams\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0095\" name=\"bbb0095\">[\u06f1\u06f9]<\/a>,\u00a0<a class=\"workspace-trigger\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bb0100\" name=\"bbb0100\">[\u06f2\u06f0]<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0200\">While segregation systems for large-format batteries are needed, the optimum\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Separation Point\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/separation-point\">separation point<\/a>\u00a0in the recycling chain is unclear, and rescreening might still be necessary before final processing. The screening could be based on density differences: Li-ion batteries are likely to be much lighter than Pb\u2013acid batteries. Recyclers are hoping to make their suppliers responsible for providing a stream that is free of undesired type(s) of batteries, and they do not want to pay more. Careful separation is likely to increase recycling costs. Presumably, these increased costs would be borne by consumers. Separation would be facilitated if manufacturers labeled\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Battery Component\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/battery-component\">battery components<\/a>\u00a0by means of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Bar Code\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/bar-code\">bar codes<\/a>, RFID chips, or delegated paint color or type (e.g., visible under black light). Labeling, too, would entail costs, and the appropriate placement of labels (on cells, modules, or packs) would depend on the dismantling technology envisioned. Also helpful would be incentives for good recycling practices, and penalties for bad ones.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"s0060\">\n<h2 id=\"st0075\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"%DB%B4%D9%AB_Vision_of_ideal_future_system\"><\/span>\u06f4\u066b\u00a0Vision of ideal future system<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"p0210\">Ideally, the search for the best battery chemistries and designs will result in a few that satisfy everyone&#8217;s requirements, and the batteries of a given type would be made as uniform as possible. At a minimum, those that could be recycled together would have at least one distinguishing feature in common, and conversely, one to differentiate them from those that need to be recycled in a different way. Mechanisms would be in place to return all batteries at the conclusion of their (first or second) useful lives. There would be an easy way to route these spent batteries to the appropriate recycling facilities in a safe and legal manner. User-friendly labeling would aid appropriate routing. Regulations would assure safe transport and handling, and discourage any sort of cross-contamination. Sorting\/routing could be immediate, via a transfer station or within a unified recycling facility. Separate streams would be processed to produce valuable, high-purity materials that could be reused in batteries or in another high-value product if the\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Recovered Material\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/recovered-material\">recovered material<\/a>\u00a0had become obsolete.\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Recycling Process\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/recycling-process\">Recycling process<\/a>\u00a0development would be complete. All batteries would be designed with recycling in mind, avoiding irreversible joining and troublesome materials. An alternative to separate processing would also require\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Process Development\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/process-development\">process development<\/a>\u00a0to enable production of a valuable product from a mixed stream (or product separation into valuable streams). Strict industry standards would ensure that recycled products meet the same high\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Quality Standard\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/quality-standard\">quality standards<\/a>\u00a0as virgin materials and thereby are accepted for reuse.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0215\">Accomplishment of this future vision before large numbers of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Automotives\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/automotives\">automotive<\/a>\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Propulsion\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/propulsion\">propulsion<\/a>batteries have reached the end of their useful lives requires research and planning to continue over the next 10\u00a0years or so. It is a daunting task, but if there is a broad commitment from industry and government, it can be done.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"ac0005\">\n<h2 id=\"st0020\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Acknowledgments\"><\/span>Acknowledgments<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"p0220\">This work was sponsored primarily by the\u00a0<span id=\"gts0005\">U.S. Department of Energy&#8217;s Office of Vehicle Technologies<\/span>. The submitted article was created by UChicago Argonne, LLC, Operator of Argonne National Laboratory (\u201cArgonne\u201d).\u00a0Argonne, a\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about u.s. Department of Energy\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/engineering\/u-s-department-of-energy\">U.S. Department of Energy<\/a>\u00a0Office of Science\u00a0laboratory, is operated under Contract No.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#gts0010\">DE-AC02-06CH11357<\/a>. The U.S. Government retains for itself, and others acting on its behalf, a paid-up nonexclusive, irrevocable worldwide license in said article to reproduce, prepare derivative works, distribute copies to the public, and perform publicly and display publicly, by or on behalf of the Government.<\/p>\n<p id=\"p0225\">The author wishes to thank the DOE Office of\u00a0<a title=\"Learn more about Energy Storage\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/topics\/physics-and-astronomy\/energy-storage\">Energy Storage<\/a>\u00a0for support, and the battery recyclers, USABC, and Argonne staff who provided information and helpful comments during the preparation of this work.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"Tail\" style=\"text-align: left;\"><\/div>\n<section id=\"bi0005\" class=\"bibliography\">\n<h2 class=\"section-title\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span>References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<section id=\"bs0005\" class=\"bibliography-sec\">\n<dl id=\"reference-links-bs0005\" class=\"references\">\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0005\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0005\">[\u06f1]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0005\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">L.\u00a0Gaines<strong class=\"title\">To recycle or not to recycle: that is the question\u2014insights from life-cycle analysis<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">MRS Bull.,\u00a0\u06f3\u06f7\u00a0(\u06f2\u06f0\u06f1\u06f2), pp.\u00a0\u06f3\u06f3\u06f3-\u06f3\u06f3\u06f8<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1557\/mrs.2012.40\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CrossRef<\/a><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scopus.com\/inward\/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84860516624&amp;partnerID=10&amp;rel=R3.0.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">View Record in Scopus<\/a><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=To%20recycle%20or%20not%20to%20recycle%3A%20that%20is%20the%20question%E2%80%94insights%20from%20life-cycle%20analysis&amp;publication_year=2012&amp;author=L.%20Gaines\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0010\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0010\">[\u06f2]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0010\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">L.\u00a0Gaines,\u00a0M.\u00a0Mintz<strong class=\"title\">Energy Implications of Glass-container Recycling<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL\/ESD-18\u00a0(\u06f1\u06f9\u06f9\u06f3)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=Energy%20Implications%20of%20Glass-container%20Recycling&amp;publication_year=1993&amp;author=L.%20Gaines&amp;author=M.%20Mintz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0015\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0015\">[\u06f3]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0015\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">M.\u00a0Babiak,\u00a0M.\u00a0Boolish<strong class=\"title\">Primary Battery Collection and Recycling: A Manufacturer&#8217;s Perspective. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">\u06f1\u06f3th International Battery Materials Recycling Seminar &amp; Exhibit, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, March 16-18(2009)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=Primary%20Battery%20Collection%20and%20Recycling%3A%20A%20Manufacturer%27s%20Perspective.%20National%20Electrical%20Manufacturers%20Association%20(NEMA)&amp;publication_year=2009&amp;author=M.%20Babiak&amp;author=M.%20Boolish\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0020\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0020\">[\u06f4]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0020\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">J.\u00a0Dunn,\u00a0L.\u00a0Gaines,\u00a0J.\u00a0Sullivan,\u00a0M.Q.\u00a0Wang<strong class=\"title\">The impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Environ. Sci. Technol.,\u00a0\u06f4\u06f6\u00a0(\u06f2\u06f0\u06f1\u06f2), pp.\u00a0\u06f1\u06f2\u06f7\u06f0\u06f4-\u06f1\u06f2\u06f7\u06f1\u06f0<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/es302420z\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CrossRef<\/a><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scopus.com\/inward\/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84869380708&amp;partnerID=10&amp;rel=R3.0.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">View Record in Scopus<\/a><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=The%20impact%20of%20recycling%20on%20cradle-to-gate%20energy%20consumption%20and%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions%20of%20automotive%20lithium-ion%20batteries&amp;publication_year=2012&amp;author=J.%20Dunn&amp;author=L.%20Gaines&amp;author=J.%20Sullivan&amp;author=M.Q.%20Wang\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0025\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0025\">[\u06f5]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0025\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">PRBA: The Rechargeable Battery Association<strong class=\"title\">Information on batteries in transport<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.prba.org\/publications\/batteries-in-transport-shipping-batteries-safely\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/www.prba.org\/publications\/batteries-in-transport-shipping-batteries-safely\/<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">(Accessed July 10, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Information%20on%20batteries%20in%20transport%22%20+author:%22PRBA:%20The%20Rechargeable%20Battery%20Association%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0030\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0030\">[\u06f6]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0030\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">Battery Council International<strong class=\"title\">National Recycling Rate Study<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">Prepared by<\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">SmithBucklin Statistics Group,\u00a0Chicago, Illinois\u00a0(April 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\"><a href=\"http:\/\/c.ymcdn.com\/sites\/batterycouncil.org\/resource\/resmgr\/BCI_Recycling_Rate_Study_200.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/c.ymcdn.com\/sites\/batterycouncil.org\/resource\/resmgr\/BCI_Recycling_Rate_Study_200.pdf<\/a>, (Accessed November 12, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22National%20Recycling%20Rate%20Study%22%20+author:%22Battery%20Council%20International%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0035\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0035\">[\u06f7]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0035\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">J.\u00a0McDonald<strong class=\"title\">China Recycling Cleanup Jolts Global Industry<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Associated Press\u00a0(October 3, 2013)<\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\"><a href=\"http:\/\/news.msn.com\/world\/china-recycling-cleanup-jolts-global-industry\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/news.msn.com\/world\/china-recycling-cleanup-jolts-global-industry<\/a>, (Accessed July 9, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22China%20Recycling%20Cleanup%20Jolts%20Global%20Industry%22%20+author:%22J.%20McDonald%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0040\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0040\">[\u06f8]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0040\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">Environmental Protection Agency<strong class=\"title\">Rule and implementation information for secondary lead smelters<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ttn\/atw\/lead2nd\/lead2pg.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ttn\/atw\/lead2nd\/lead2pg.html<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">(Accessed July 9, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Rule%20and%20implementation%20information%20for%20secondary%20lead%20smelters%22%20+author:%22Environmental%20Protection%20Agency%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0045\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0045\">[\u06f9]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"or0035\" class=\"reference\">E. Rosenthal, Lead from Old U.S. Batteries Sent to Mexico Raises Risks.\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, December 8, 2011,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/12\/09\/science\/earth\/recycled-battery-lead-puts-mexicans-in-danger.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/12\/09\/science\/earth\/recycled-battery-lead-puts-mexicans-in-danger.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0<\/a>\u00a0(Accessed July 9, 2014).<\/p>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22E.%20Rosenthal,%20Lead%20from%20Old%20U.S.%20Batteries%20Sent%20to%20Mexico%20Raises%20Risks.%20New%20York%20Times,%20December%208,%202011,%20http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/12\/09\/science\/earth\/recycled-battery-lead-puts-mexicans-in-danger.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0%20(Accessed%20July%209,%202014).%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0050\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0050\">[\u06f1\u06f0]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0045\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">L.\u00a0Gaines,\u00a0M.\u00a0Singh,\u00a0D.\u00a0Elcock<strong class=\"title\">Nickel\u2013Metal Hydride Batteries: Energy Use and Emissions from Production and Recycling<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">SAE Future Car Congress, Arlington, VA, June\u00a0(\u06f2\u06f0\u06f0\u06f2)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?title=Nickel%E2%80%93Metal%20Hydride%20Batteries%3A%20Energy%20Use%20and%20Emissions%20from%20Production%20and%20Recycling&amp;publication_year=2002&amp;author=L.%20Gaines&amp;author=M.%20Singh&amp;author=D.%20Elcock\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0055\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0055\">[\u06f1\u06f1]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0050\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">Umicore and Rhodia develop unique rare earth recycling process for rechargeable batteries. Press release CP-2011-18-R, June 6, 2011<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.umicore.com\/investorrelations\/en\/newsPublications\/pressReleases\/2011\/show_REErecyclingEN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/www.umicore.com\/investorrelations\/en\/newsPublications\/pressReleases\/2011\/show_REErecyclingEN.pdf<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">(Accessed July 10, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Umicore%20and%20Rhodia%20develop%20unique%20rare%20earth%20recycling%20process%20for%20rechargeable%20batteries.%20Press%20release%20CP-2011-18-R,%20June%206,%202011%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0060\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0060\">[\u06f1\u06f2]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0055\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">Honda to reuse rare earth metals contained in used parts. Press release, April 17, 2012<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\"><a href=\"http:\/\/world.honda.com\/news\/2012\/c120417Reuse-Rare-Earth-Metals\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/world.honda.com\/news\/2012\/c120417Reuse-Rare-Earth-Metals\/index.html<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">(Accessed July 10, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Honda%20to%20reuse%20rare%20earth%20metals%20contained%20in%20used%20parts.%20Press%20release,%20April%2017,%202012%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0065\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0065\">[\u06f1\u06f3]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0060\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">Hybrid battery recycling program<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.toyota.com.au\/hybrid-battery-recycling\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/www.toyota.com.au\/hybrid-battery-recycling<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\">(Accessed July 10, 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Hybrid%20battery%20recycling%20program%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0070\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0070\">[\u06f1\u06f4]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0065\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">J.B.\u00a0Dunn,\u00a0L.\u00a0Gaines,\u00a0M.\u00a0Barnes,\u00a0J.\u00a0Sullivan,\u00a0M.\u00a0Wang<strong class=\"title\">Material and Energy Flows in the Materials Production, Assembly, and End of Life Stages of the Automotive Lithium Ion Battery Life Cycle<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL\/ESD\/12-3\u00a0(June 2012)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Material%20and%20Energy%20Flows%20in%20the%20Materials%20Production,%20Assembly,%20and%20End%20of%20Life%20Stages%20of%20the%20Automotive%20Lithium%20Ion%20Battery%20Life%20Cycle%22%20+author:%22J.B.%20Dunn%22%20+author:%22L.%20Gaines%22%20+author:%22M.%20Barnes%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0075\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0075\">[\u06f1\u06f5]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0070\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\">L.\u00a0Gaines,\u00a0A.\u00a0Wolsky<strong class=\"title\">Discarded Tires: Energy Conservation Through Alternative Uses<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL\/CNSV-5\u00a0(December 1979)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Discarded%20Tires:%20Energy%20Conservation%20Through%20Alternative%20Uses%22%20+author:%22L.%20Gaines%22%20+author:%22A.%20Wolsky%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0080\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0080\">[\u06f1\u06f6]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"or0065\" class=\"reference\">Directive 2006\/66\/Ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91\/157\/EEC.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Directive%202006\/66\/Ec%20of%20the%20European%20Parliament%20and%20of%20the%20Council%20of%206%20September%202006%20on%20batteries%20and%20accumulators%20and%20waste%20batteries%20and%20accumulators%20and%20repealing%20Directive%2091\/157\/EEC.%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0085\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0085\">[\u06f1\u06f7]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0075\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">Recommended Practice for Recycling of xEV Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">United States Advanced Battery Consortium Report, draft,\u00a0Spring\u00a0(\u06f2\u06f0\u06f1\u06f4)<\/div>\n<div class=\"comment\"><a href=\"http:\/\/uscar.org\/guest\/teams\/68\/USABC-Battery-Recycling-Group\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/uscar.org\/guest\/teams\/68\/USABC-Battery-Recycling-Group<\/a>, (Accessed July 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Recommended%20Practice%20for%20Recycling%20of%20xEV%20Electrochemical%20Energy%20Storage%20Systems%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0090\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0090\">[\u06f1\u06f8]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0080\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">ILA\/ABR Survey Analysis<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">International Lead Association\u00a0(April 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22ILA\/ABR%20Survey%20Analysis%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0095\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0095\">[\u06f1\u06f9]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0085\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"contribution\"><strong class=\"title\">Automotive Battery Recycling Identification and Cross-Contamination Prevention\u2014Recommended Practice J3071 draft<\/strong><\/div>\n<div class=\"host\">Society of Automotive Engineers Battery Recycling Working Group\u00a0(July 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Automotive%20Battery%20Recycling%20Identification%20and%20Cross-Contamination%20Prevention%E2%80%94Recommended%20Practice%20J3071%20draft%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt class=\"label\"><a id=\"ref-id-bb0100\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bbb0100\">[\u06f2\u06f0]<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"rf0090\" class=\"reference\">\n<div class=\"host\">Battery Recycling Streams Working Group Conference Call Minutes,\u00a0Association of European Automotive and Industrial Battery Manufacturers\u00a0(May 2014)<\/div>\n<div class=\"ReferenceLinks\"><a class=\"link\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?q=%22Battery%20Recycling%20Streams%20Working%20Group%20Conference%20Call%20Minutes%22\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Google Scholar<\/a><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"Footnotes\" style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<dl class=\"footnote\">\n<dt class=\"footnote-label\"><sup><a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2214993714000037#bfn0005\">\u06f1<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd class=\"u-margin-xxl-left\">\n<p id=\"np0005\">Tel.: +\u00a0\u06f1 \u06f6\u06f3\u06f0 \u06f2\u06f5\u06f2 \u06f4\u06f9\u06f1\u06f9; fax: +\u00a0\u06f1 \u06f6\u06f3\u06f0 \u06f2\u06f5\u06f2 \u06f3\u06f4\u06f4\u06f3\u066b<\/p>\n<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p dir=\"ltr\" style=\"text-align: left;\"><a class=\"anchor abstract-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/abs\/pii\/S2214993714000037\"><span class=\"anchor-text\">View Abstract<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"Copyright\" style=\"text-align: left;\"><span class=\"copyright-line\">Copyright \u00a9 \u06f2\u06f0\u06f1\u06f4 Published by Elsevier B.V.<\/span><\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>This paper looks ahead, beyond the projected large-scale market penetration of vehicles containing advanced batteries, to the time when the spent batteries will be ready for final disposition Abstract . It describes a working system for recycling, using lead\u2013acid battery recycling as a model. Recycling of automotive\u00a0lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries\u00a0is more complicated and not yet established&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":20599,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[494],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-19832","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-articles"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/19832","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=19832"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/19832\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":21155,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/19832\/revisions\/21155"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/20599"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=19832"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=19832"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/tarhabpolymer.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=19832"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}